The twenty-first century has witnessed an unprecedented demand for critical minerals driven by the global transition toward renewable energy, digital transformation, advanced manufacturing, and national security technologies. Among these resources, rare earth elements (REEs) have emerged as some of the most strategically significant materials in the modern economy. Comprising seventeen metallic elements, including the fifteen lanthanides as well as scandium and yttrium, rare earth elements are indispensable components of wind turbines, electric vehicle motors, smartphones, medical imaging devices, aerospace technologies, and sophisticated defence systems. Despite their relative abundance within the Earth’s crust, economically viable concentrations remain limited, and their extraction is often environmentally challenging and geopolitically sensitive (Humphries, 2013).

Historically, global rare earth production has been dominated by terrestrial mining operations, with a substantial proportion of extraction and processing concentrated in China. This concentration has generated concerns regarding supply chain security, market stability, and geopolitical dependency. Consequently, researchers and policymakers have increasingly turned their attention to alternative sources of rare earth elements, particularly those located beneath the world’s oceans. Recent scientific discoveries have revealed that extensive deposits of rare earth-rich sediments, often described as underwater rare earth-rich soils, exist across large areas of the deep seabed. These discoveries have prompted growing interest in their potential to supplement or even transform global mineral supply systems (Kato et al., 2011).

The exploration of underwater rare earth deposits represents a convergence of geology, oceanography, economics, environmental science, and international politics. Understanding the origins and distribution of these resources is therefore essential for assessing their future role in sustainable development and strategic resource management.

Geological Formation of Underwater Rare Earth-Rich Soils

The formation of underwater rare earth-rich soils is the result of complex geological and geochemical processes operating over millions of years. Unlike terrestrial ore deposits, which are often associated with volcanic activity or concentrated mineral veins, marine rare earth accumulations typically occur within deep-sea sediments through gradual processes of deposition, adsorption, and chemical enrichment.

One of the primary mechanisms responsible for rare earth accumulation in marine environments involves hydrothermal activity. Hydrothermal vents, located along tectonic plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges, release mineral-rich fluids into surrounding seawater. As these fluids cool, dissolved metals precipitate and become incorporated into marine sediments. Over extended geological periods, repeated hydrothermal events contribute to the accumulation of valuable mineral deposits on the ocean floor (Hein et al., 2013).

A second important mechanism involves the continuous deposition of fine-grained clay particles and biological materials from the upper ocean. These particles gradually settle through the water column and accumulate on abyssal plains, creating thick layers of sediment. Rare earth elements dissolved in seawater become adsorbed onto clay minerals and organic matter, resulting in gradual enrichment over geological timescales. The exceptionally slow rate of sedimentation in deep ocean environments allows rare earth concentrations to increase significantly in certain locations (Kato et al., 2011).

Diagenetic processes further enhance mineral concentration after deposition. Chemical reactions occurring within sediment layers alter the composition of minerals and facilitate the redistribution of rare earth elements. These processes may increase the concentration of economically valuable metals while reducing the presence of less desirable materials. Such post-depositional modifications contribute significantly to the formation of commercially attractive deposits.

The interaction between ocean currents, biological productivity, volcanic activity, and tectonic processes also influences the spatial distribution of rare earth-rich sediments. Consequently, certain regions of the world’s oceans exhibit unusually high concentrations of rare earth elements, making them prime targets for future exploration and potential extraction.

Types of Marine Rare Earth Deposits

Marine rare earth resources occur in several distinct geological forms, each possessing unique characteristics and economic implications. Among these, deep-sea rare earth muds have attracted the greatest scientific and commercial interest. These deposits consist primarily of fine-grained sediments enriched with lanthanides and other critical minerals. Research conducted in the Pacific Ocean has identified rare earth concentrations exceeding 5,000 parts per million in certain areas, levels comparable to some of the world’s most productive terrestrial mines (Kato et al., 2011).

Polymetallic nodules constitute another important category of marine mineral resources. These nodules, often described as resembling potatoes in size and appearance, form over millions of years through the gradual precipitation of metals from seawater. In addition to manganese, nickel, copper, and cobalt, polymetallic nodules frequently contain economically significant quantities of rare earth elements. Their widespread distribution across abyssal plains has made them a major focus of international exploration efforts.

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts represent a third category of underwater mineral resources. These crusts form on the flanks of underwater mountains and seamounts through direct precipitation from seawater. They are particularly valuable because they contain elevated concentrations of cobalt and heavy rare earth elements, both of which are essential for advanced technological applications (Hein et al., 2013).

Marine phosphorites also contribute to the global inventory of underwater rare earth resources. These phosphate-rich sediments accumulate primarily on continental shelves and contain trace concentrations of rare earth elements that may become economically significant as demand continues to increase.

Global Distribution and Strategic Significance

The discovery of extensive underwater rare earth deposits has fundamentally altered perceptions regarding future mineral availability. Although marine mineral resources exist in all major oceans, the Pacific Ocean currently contains the most thoroughly documented and potentially significant deposits. Japanese researchers were among the first to identify vast rare earth-rich mud fields in the eastern Pacific, leading some scholars to suggest that these resources could satisfy global demand for several centuries (Kato et al., 2011).

Particularly noteworthy is the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, a vast region located between Hawaii and Mexico. This area contains immense quantities of polymetallic nodules and has become the focal point of international exploration activities sponsored by governments and private corporations. Similar deposits have also been identified within the Indian Ocean and portions of the Atlantic Ocean, although these regions remain less extensively studied.

The strategic significance of underwater rare earth-rich soils extends far beyond geology. As nations seek to secure reliable supplies of critical minerals, access to marine resources has become increasingly intertwined with broader questions of economic security and geopolitical influence. The International Energy Agency (2023) projects substantial growth in demand for rare earth elements as countries accelerate the deployment of renewable energy technologies and electrified transportation systems. This growing demand has heightened concerns regarding supply chain resilience and resource concentration.

Marine rare earth deposits therefore represent not merely a new source of raw materials but also a potential mechanism for diversifying global supply networks. By reducing dependence on a limited number of terrestrial producers, underwater resources may contribute to greater market stability and strategic autonomy for resource-importing nations.

Extraction Technologies, Industrial Applications and Economic Potential of Underwater Rare Earth-Rich Soils

The discovery of extensive rare earth-rich sediments beneath the world’s oceans has generated considerable interest among governments, industry leaders, and scientific communities. However, the existence of vast mineral resources alone does not guarantee their economic viability. The extraction of rare earth elements from underwater soils presents some of the most complex engineering challenges ever confronted by the mining industry. Unlike terrestrial mining operations, which generally occur within accessible geological environments, deep-sea mining requires sophisticated technologies capable of operating under extreme pressure, low temperatures, complete darkness, and highly corrosive conditions. The development of such technologies has transformed underwater mineral extraction from a theoretical possibility into a realistic industrial prospect.

At the same time, growing global demand for rare earth elements has strengthened the economic rationale for exploring marine mineral resources. The expansion of renewable energy systems, electric mobility, digital technologies, advanced manufacturing, and defence industries has created unprecedented pressure on existing supply chains. Consequently, underwater rare earth-rich soils are increasingly viewed not merely as geological curiosities but as strategic assets capable of supporting future economic development and technological innovation.

Evolution of Deep-Sea Mining Technology

The concept of extracting minerals from the ocean floor is not new. Serious scientific discussions regarding deep-sea mining began during the 1960s when oceanographic surveys revealed the presence of polymetallic nodules across vast areas of the Pacific Ocean. At that time, however, technological limitations and relatively low mineral prices rendered commercial exploitation economically impractical. The immense depths involved, frequently exceeding 4,000 metres, presented engineering obstacles that could not be overcome using available technologies.

Over the past three decades, significant advances in robotics, materials science, artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and underwater engineering have dramatically altered this situation. Modern ocean exploration technologies now enable researchers to map seabed environments with remarkable precision. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) equipped with advanced sonar systems can survey extensive areas of the ocean floor, producing detailed three-dimensional geological models that identify potential mineral deposits (Sharma, 2017).

Similarly, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) have become indispensable tools for exploration and resource assessment. These sophisticated machines can collect samples, conduct visual inspections, and perform scientific measurements in environments previously inaccessible to human operators. The development of these technologies has substantially reduced exploration risks while improving the accuracy of resource estimates.

Artificial intelligence has further enhanced operational capabilities. Machine learning algorithms are increasingly used to analyse geological data, optimise extraction routes, monitor equipment performance, and improve decision-making processes. Such innovations are expected to play a critical role in future commercial mining operations, particularly as projects expand into increasingly complex marine environments.

Extraction Technologies and Engineering Challenges

The extraction of rare earth-rich sediments from the deep seabed requires an integrated system involving seabed collection, vertical transport, surface processing, and mineral separation. Each stage presents unique technical challenges that influence operational efficiency and economic feasibility.

Current mining concepts typically rely upon specialised seabed collection vehicles. These crawler-like machines move across the ocean floor, gathering mineral-rich sediments through mechanical cutting, suction systems, or hydraulic collection mechanisms. The collected material is then mixed with seawater to form a slurry that can be transported to surface vessels through large riser pipes extending several kilometres below sea level.

Hydraulic lifting systems constitute one of the most widely studied approaches for transporting seabed materials. Powerful pumps generate sufficient pressure to move sediment-water mixtures from the ocean floor to processing facilities aboard mining ships. Although technically feasible, maintaining reliable flow rates under extreme ocean conditions remains a significant engineering challenge. Equipment must withstand enormous hydrostatic pressures while operating continuously in highly abrasive environments.

The physical recovery of sediments represents only the initial stage of the extraction process. Once transported to the surface, rare earth elements must be separated from surrounding materials through complex metallurgical procedures. This stage often accounts for a substantial proportion of total production costs.

According to Jordens, Cheng and Waters (2013), the beneficiation of rare earth-bearing minerals remains one of the most technically demanding aspects of the industry. The chemical similarities among rare earth elements make their separation particularly difficult. Conventional processing techniques typically involve acid leaching, solvent extraction, ion exchange systems, and hydrometallurgical treatment. These methods require significant energy inputs and extensive chemical management to achieve commercially acceptable purity levels.

Emerging technologies seek to improve both efficiency and environmental performance. Bioleaching techniques, which utilise microorganisms to facilitate mineral extraction, have attracted growing scientific interest. Similarly, advanced adsorption materials capable of selectively capturing rare earth ions may reduce processing costs while minimising chemical waste. Although many of these technologies remain at the experimental stage, they could substantially improve the economic viability of underwater rare earth extraction in the coming decades (Binnemans et al., 2013).

Industrial Applications of Rare Earth Elements

The economic significance of underwater rare earth-rich soils derives primarily from the indispensable role of rare earth elements in modern industrial systems. Few other mineral groups possess such broad technological applications across multiple sectors of the global economy.

Perhaps the most widely recognised application involves renewable energy technologies. Permanent magnets manufactured from neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium are essential components of high-efficiency wind turbines and electric vehicle motors. These magnets enable greater energy conversion efficiency while reducing equipment size and weight. As governments pursue ambitious decarbonisation targets, demand for these materials is expected to increase substantially (International Energy Agency, 2023).

The digital economy represents another major source of demand. Smartphones, computers, fibre-optic communication systems, semiconductors, and data centres all rely upon rare earth elements. Europium, terbium, and yttrium are widely used in display technologies, while other rare earth compounds contribute to miniaturised electronic components and advanced telecommunications infrastructure.

In the aerospace and defence sectors, rare earth elements are often regarded as strategic materials. Modern radar systems, satellite communications, precision-guided munitions, missile defence technologies, and advanced aircraft engines depend upon specialised rare earth alloys and magnetic materials. As a result, access to reliable rare earth supplies is increasingly viewed as a matter of national security by many governments (Humphries, 2013).

Medical technologies also rely heavily upon rare earth elements. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems, laser surgical equipment, diagnostic instruments, and radiation therapy technologies incorporate rare earth compounds due to their unique magnetic and optical properties. The growing sophistication of healthcare systems worldwide is therefore expected to contribute further to future demand.

Economic Potential and Global Market Dynamics

The economic potential of underwater rare earth-rich soils is closely linked to long-term trends in global mineral consumption. The transition towards low-carbon energy systems has significantly altered projections regarding future resource demand. According to the World Bank (2020), achieving global climate objectives may require a several-fold increase in the production of critical minerals, including rare earth elements.

This anticipated growth has intensified concerns regarding supply concentration. At present, a substantial portion of global rare earth processing capacity remains concentrated within a limited number of countries. Such concentration creates vulnerabilities that may affect manufacturing industries, energy transitions, and national security planning. Underwater rare earth deposits offer a potential mechanism for diversifying supply chains and reducing geopolitical risks.

From an economic perspective, the attractiveness of deep-sea mining depends upon several interrelated factors. Commodity prices, technological efficiency, environmental compliance costs, regulatory certainty, and capital investment requirements all influence project viability. While initial investment costs are likely to be substantial, the enormous scale of identified marine deposits may ultimately support long-term profitability.

Private corporations, sovereign wealth funds, and national governments have increasingly recognised these opportunities. Exploration contracts issued by the International Seabed Authority have expanded steadily, reflecting growing confidence in the future commercial potential of marine mineral resources. Some analysts have suggested that underwater rare earth extraction could become a central component of the emerging blue economy, generating significant economic value while supporting broader industrial transformation.

Nevertheless, economic potential alone cannot determine the future of deep-sea mining. The environmental consequences of disturbing largely unexplored marine ecosystems remain uncertain and controversial. Questions regarding biodiversity protection, ecological resilience, and sustainable governance continue to shape international debates. These environmental and regulatory dimensions will be examined in Part III of this study, where the focus shifts from technological feasibility and economic opportunity to the broader challenge of balancing resource development with environmental stewardship.

Environmental Impacts, International Governance, Sustainability Challenges and Future Prospects of Underwater Rare Earth Extraction

The growing interest in underwater rare earth-rich soils reflects a broader global challenge: how to secure the mineral resources necessary for economic development and technological progress while maintaining environmental sustainability. Although deep-sea deposits offer significant opportunities to diversify critical mineral supply chains, their exploitation raises profound ecological, legal, ethical, and political questions. Unlike terrestrial mining environments, where decades of scientific research have generated extensive knowledge regarding environmental impacts, deep-sea ecosystems remain among the least understood regions of the planet. Consequently, policymakers, scientists, environmental organisations, and industry stakeholders are engaged in an ongoing debate concerning whether the potential benefits of underwater rare earth extraction outweigh the associated risks.

The controversy surrounding deep-sea mining is not merely a technical issue. It reflects broader tensions between economic growth and environmental protection, between national interests and international governance, and between present-day resource needs and long-term ecological stewardship. As technological capabilities advance and commercial interest intensifies, these questions are becoming increasingly urgent.

The Ecological Significance of Deep-Sea Ecosystems

The deep ocean represents the largest ecosystem on Earth, covering more than half of the planet’s surface. Despite its vast extent, scientific understanding of deep-sea biodiversity remains remarkably limited. Many regions that have been identified as potential mining sites have only recently been explored, and new species continue to be discovered during almost every major scientific expedition.

For much of the twentieth century, the deep sea was viewed as a relatively barren environment characterised by low biological productivity. Contemporary research has fundamentally challenged this assumption. Scientists now recognise deep-sea ecosystems as highly diverse and ecologically complex environments that support specialised organisms adapted to conditions of extreme pressure, low temperature, and perpetual darkness (Levin et al., 2016).

Many deep-sea species exhibit exceptionally slow growth rates and extended life cycles. Some coral communities associated with seamounts may be several centuries old, while certain polymetallic nodules themselves require millions of years to form. Consequently, ecological recovery following disturbance is expected to occur far more slowly than in many terrestrial ecosystems.

Rare earth-rich sediments and associated mineral deposits frequently provide habitat for unique biological communities. Organisms living on or around polymetallic nodules often depend directly upon these structures for shelter, feeding, and reproduction. The removal of nodules therefore represents not only the extraction of mineral resources but also the elimination of ecological habitat that may never be naturally restored within human timescales (Jones et al., 2017).

Environmental Risks Associated with Deep-Sea Mining

One of the primary concerns associated with underwater rare earth extraction involves direct habitat destruction. Mining equipment operating on the seabed inevitably disturbs sediments, removes geological structures, and alters physical habitat characteristics. Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, where restoration measures can sometimes accelerate recovery, the extreme environmental conditions of the deep sea significantly limit opportunities for active rehabilitation.

Scientific experiments conducted to simulate seabed mining disturbances have demonstrated that ecological effects may persist for decades. In some experimental sites disturbed during the 1970s and 1980s, evidence of ecological recovery remains incomplete more than forty years later (Jones et al., 2017). Such findings raise important questions regarding the reversibility of mining impacts and the adequacy of existing environmental management frameworks.

Sediment plumes represent a second major environmental concern. Mining operations generate large volumes of suspended sediment that may spread considerable distances beyond the immediate extraction area. These plumes can interfere with feeding mechanisms used by filter-feeding organisms, reduce habitat quality, and alter ecological processes across extensive regions of the seabed.

The potential impact of sediment plumes remains one of the least understood aspects of deep-sea mining. Modelling studies suggest that plume behaviour depends upon ocean currents, sediment characteristics, and mining intensity, making accurate predictions difficult. Nevertheless, many scientists regard plume generation as one of the most significant ecological risks associated with commercial-scale operations (Levin et al., 2016).

Noise pollution constitutes another emerging area of concern. Deep-sea mining systems involve continuous operation of pumps, vehicles, drilling equipment, and surface vessels. Although research remains limited, there is growing evidence that underwater noise may affect marine mammals, fish populations, and other species that rely upon acoustic communication or environmental sensing.

A further concern involves the potential disruption of biogeochemical cycles. Deep-sea sediments serve as long-term repositories for carbon and nutrients that influence global ocean processes. Disturbance of these sediments may alter carbon storage dynamics, nutrient cycling, and microbial activity. While current scientific evidence suggests that these impacts are unlikely to rival major anthropogenic carbon emissions, uncertainties remain substantial and require further investigation (Jones et al., 2017).

International Governance and Legal Frameworks

The emergence of deep-sea mining has created significant challenges for international law and global governance. Unlike terrestrial mineral resources, many underwater deposits are located beyond national jurisdictions, requiring international mechanisms to regulate access and environmental protection.

The principal legal framework governing deep-sea mineral activities is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which entered into force in 1994. UNCLOS established the principle that mineral resources located beyond national jurisdiction constitute the “common heritage of mankind.” This concept reflects the view that such resources should be managed for the benefit of all humanity rather than exclusively for individual states or corporations.

To implement this principle, UNCLOS created the International Seabed Authority (ISA), headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica. The ISA is responsible for regulating exploration and potential exploitation activities in international waters. Its responsibilities include issuing exploration contracts, developing environmental standards, monitoring compliance, and establishing financial mechanisms for resource sharing.

Since the early 2000s, the ISA has issued numerous exploration licences covering large areas of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. These licences have been granted to both state-sponsored entities and private corporations operating under national sponsorship agreements. However, the transition from exploration to commercial exploitation remains highly controversial.

One of the central challenges facing the ISA concerns the development of mining regulations that adequately balance economic interests with environmental protection. Environmental organisations have argued that scientific knowledge remains insufficient to support large-scale mining activities. Some governments have therefore called for precautionary pauses or temporary moratoria until additional research can be conducted.

The debate reflects broader tensions within environmental governance. While proponents emphasise the importance of securing critical minerals needed for renewable energy transitions, opponents argue that exploiting poorly understood ecosystems may create irreversible environmental damage. This conflict illustrates the complex trade-offs associated with sustainable development in the twenty-first century.

Ethical Considerations and Sustainability

Beyond legal and environmental questions, underwater rare earth extraction raises important ethical issues. The concept of sustainability requires balancing present needs with the interests of future generations. Determining how this principle should apply to deep-sea ecosystems remains a subject of ongoing debate.

Advocates of deep-sea mining frequently argue that underwater resources may reduce pressure on terrestrial environments. Conventional rare earth mining has often been associated with deforestation, habitat destruction, water contamination, and social conflict. From this perspective, carefully regulated marine extraction could potentially provide a less environmentally damaging alternative.

Critics counter that such arguments may create a false choice between two environmentally problematic options. They emphasise the need to prioritise recycling, resource efficiency, and circular economy strategies before expanding extraction into previously undisturbed ecosystems (Binnemans et al., 2013).

Questions of intergenerational justice are particularly relevant. Deep-sea ecosystems have evolved over millions of years and may possess scientific, ecological, and cultural values that remain poorly understood. Decisions regarding their exploitation therefore involve considerations extending beyond immediate economic benefits.

The ethical debate also encompasses issues of global equity. Since deep-sea resources are considered part of humanity’s common heritage, questions arise regarding how economic benefits should be distributed among developed and developing nations. Ensuring equitable access to resource revenues remains one of the most challenging aspects of international seabed governance.

Future Prospects

The future of underwater rare earth extraction will likely be shaped by interactions among technological innovation, market demand, environmental science, and international politics. Several potential pathways can be identified.

The first scenario involves the gradual development of a highly regulated mining industry supported by robust environmental monitoring systems. Advances in extraction technologies could reduce ecological impacts while improving economic efficiency. Under this model, deep-sea mining would become an important component of global critical mineral supply chains.

A second possibility involves accelerated commercial expansion driven by growing demand for renewable energy technologies and strategic minerals. While this scenario could enhance resource security, it may also increase environmental risks if governance systems fail to keep pace with industrial development.

A third scenario involves the adoption of precautionary approaches that delay or restrict commercial mining activities. Under this model, greater emphasis would be placed on recycling, material substitution, and circular economy strategies to reduce dependence on primary resource extraction.

Which path ultimately emerges will depend upon scientific discoveries, political decisions, technological advances, and societal values. Regardless of the outcome, underwater rare earth-rich soils are likely to remain central to debates concerning sustainable development, energy transitions, and resource security throughout the coming decades.

Conclusion

Underwater rare earth-rich soils represent one of the most significant mineral discoveries of the modern era. Their potential to support renewable energy systems, advanced manufacturing, digital technologies, and national security industries has positioned them at the centre of global strategic planning. Yet their exploitation raises equally significant environmental, legal, and ethical challenges.

Scientific evidence demonstrates that deep-sea ecosystems possess considerable ecological value and remain insufficiently understood. At the same time, growing demand for critical minerals underscores the strategic importance of identifying new resource sources. The challenge facing policymakers and international institutions is therefore not simply whether deep-sea mining should occur, but under what conditions it can be conducted responsibly.

The future of underwater rare earth extraction will ultimately depend upon humanity’s ability to reconcile economic ambition with environmental stewardship. Achieving this balance will require continued scientific research, technological innovation, effective international governance, and a commitment to sustainability that extends beyond immediate commercial interests. In this sense, the debate surrounding underwater rare earth-rich soils serves as a broader reflection of the choices confronting modern society as it seeks to navigate the complex relationship between development and environmental responsibility.

References

Binnemans, K., Jones, P.T., Blanpain, B., Van Gerven, T., Yang, Y., Walton, A. and Buchert, M. (2013) ‘Recycling of rare earths: a critical review’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 51, pp. 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.037

Hein, J.R., Mizell, K., Koschinsky, A. and Conrad, T.A. (2013) ‘Deep-ocean mineral deposits as a source of critical metals for high- and green-technology applications’, Ore Geology Reviews, 51, pp. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.12.001

Humphries, M. (2013) Rare Earth Elements: The Global Supply Chain. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

International Energy Agency (IEA) (2023) Critical Minerals Market Review 2023. Paris: International Energy Agency.

International Seabed Authority (ISA) (2024) Annual Report and Regulatory Developments. Kingston, Jamaica: International Seabed Authority.

Jones, D.O.B., Kaiser, S., Sweetman, A.K., Smith, C.R., Menot, L., Vink, A., Trueblood, D., Greinert, J., Billett, D.S.M. and Arbizu, P.M. (2017) ‘Biological responses to disturbance from simulated deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining’, PLOS ONE, 12(2), pp. 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171750

Jordens, A., Cheng, Y.P. and Waters, K.E. (2013) ‘A review of the beneficiation of rare earth element-bearing minerals’, Minerals Engineering, 41, pp. 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2012.10.017

Kato, Y., Fujinaga, K., Nakamura, K., Takaya, Y., Kitamura, K., Ohta, J., Toda, R., Nakashima, T. and Iwamori, H. (2011) ‘Deep-sea mud in the Pacific Ocean as a potential resource for rare-earth elements’, Nature Geoscience, 4(8), pp. 535–539. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1185

Levin, L.A., Mengerink, K., Gjerde, K.M., Rowden, A.A., Van Dover, C.L., Clark, M.R., Ramirez-Llodra, E., Currie, B., Smith, C.R. and Sato, K.N. (2016) ‘Defining “serious harm” to the marine environment in the context of deep-seabed mining’, Marine Policy, 74, pp. 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.09.032

Massari, S. and Ruberti, M. (2013) ‘Rare earth elements as critical raw materials: focus on international markets and future strategies’, Resources Policy, 38(1), pp. 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.07.001

Sharma, R. (2017) Deep-Sea Mining: Resource Potential, Technical and Environmental Considerations. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

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World Bank (2020) Minerals for Climate Action: The Mineral Intensity of the Clean Energy Transition. Washington, DC: World Bank.

The post Geological Formation, Distribution and Strategic Importance of Underwater Rare Earth-Rich Soils appeared first on Ocean Geopolitics Centre.

The geopolitical importance of these passages cannot therefore be measured simply by counting the vessels that cross them. A maritime chokepoint becomes strategically important through the interaction of several factors: the concentration of traffic, the availability or absence of alternative routes, exposure to political or military disruption, the capacity of states or other actors to interfere with navigation, and the systemic consequences that would follow from interruption. Hormuz expresses this relationship principally through energy dependence; Malacca through the enormous concentration of commercial and energy circulation between the Indian and Pacific oceans; Suez through the compression of distance between Europe and Asia; Bab el-Mandeb through the vulnerability of that system to relatively limited disruptive capabilities; Panama through the combination of engineered geography, infrastructure and environmental constraints. Different passages therefore produce different forms of vulnerability, but they share a fundamental characteristic: international systems have organised themselves around restrictive geography.

This raises a further question that deserves greater attention. Maritime strategy traditionally identifies the places upon which the world is already dependent. But what if strategically significant geography can be recognised before that dependence has fully developed?

This is the reasoning behind the concept of the latent chokepoint. An established chokepoint derives its geopolitical significance from existing dependence upon restricted geography. A latent chokepoint possesses the restrictive geography but exists at an earlier stage in the development of systemic dependence. Its present traffic may remain modest when compared with the great established maritime corridors, yet environmental change, technological development, infrastructure investment, commercial adaptation or great-power competition may progressively transform its strategic importance.

The distinction introduces an element that maritime geopolitical analysis frequently lacks: anticipation. Strategic attention should not begin only when dependence has already become entrenched. By that stage ports have been constructed, supply chains established, investments committed and political expectations formed around the route. The more demanding task is to recognise the geographical architecture of vulnerability while it is still developing.

The Arctic Changes the Map

The Arctic provides perhaps the most important contemporary environment in which to examine this possibility. For much of modern maritime history, extreme climatic conditions prevented the Arctic Ocean from becoming a major component of global commercial navigation. Its military and strategic importance was considerable, particularly during the Cold War, but its role within ordinary international shipping remained comparatively limited.

That distinction is becoming less absolute. Greater navigational accessibility, improvements in maritime technology, Russian investment in the Northern Sea Route, growing Asian interest in Arctic connectivity and increasing international attention to the High North are gradually changing the relationship between the Arctic and the wider maritime system.

This does not mean that northern routes are about to replace Suez, Malacca or the established arteries of global commerce. Such a conclusion would be premature. Arctic navigation continues to face substantial environmental, infrastructural, economic, insurance and political constraints. The more significant geopolitical observation is different: even partial development of an alternative maritime corridor can alter calculations concerning distance, resilience, diversification and strategic dependence.

And every alternative route creates its own geography. A vessel travelling from Northeast Asia towards Europe through the Russian Arctic may avoid several of the geographical concentrations associated with the traditional southern route. Yet if it enters the Arctic from the Pacific, it encounters another geographical restriction: the Bering Strait. Route diversification therefore does not necessarily eliminate chokepoint vulnerability. It can redistribute it.

Bering: A Gateway Before It Becomes a Chokepoint

Bering should not presently be placed in the same commercial category as Hormuz, Malacca or Suez. Its significance lies precisely in the fact that it is not yet comparable with them.

The strait occupies an extraordinary geographical position. It connects the Pacific and Arctic maritime spaces while separating the territories of the United States and Russia. Alaska forms its eastern strategic environment; the Russian Far East its western one. Beyond the strait lies the maritime system associated with the Northern Sea Route. Beyond its southern approaches lie the great industrial and trading economies of Northeast Asia.

This geography becomes still more significant when China is introduced into the equation. China possesses no Arctic coastline, but its economic scale, maritime dependence, scientific presence and declared interest in Arctic connectivity give it a potentially important relationship with the region. The result is an unusual geopolitical triangle. Russia possesses the western shore. The United States possesses the eastern shore. China could become an increasingly important economic user of the maritime corridor connecting the Pacific with the Arctic.

The three powers consequently approach the same geography from very different positions. For the United States, Bering is simultaneously an Arctic frontier, a Pacific gateway and a maritime space adjacent to sovereign American territory. For Russia, it is the eastern entrance to a northern maritime system extending along a vast Arctic coastline and closely connected with Russian ports, icebreakers, infrastructure and regulatory capabilities. For China, its significance lies not in territorial sovereignty but in access, diversification and the potential economic value of an additional Eurasian maritime connection.

None of this makes confrontation inevitable. Indeed, the maritime environment itself creates powerful reasons for cooperation. Navigation safety, environmental protection, search and rescue, hydrographic knowledge and predictable maritime rules serve common interests. Yet cooperation and strategic competition can coexist. This duality may become one of the defining characteristics of Arctic maritime geopolitics.

From Chokepoint Security to Chokepoint Anticipation

The importance of the latent-chokepoint concept extends beyond Bering. It suggests a different way of thinking about maritime security. Governments naturally devote attention to protecting passages upon which their economies are already dependent. Hormuz, Malacca, Suez and other established chokepoints consequently occupy permanent positions in strategic planning.

But resilience also requires identifying where new concentrations may emerge. Growing traffic is one indicator, but it is not sufficient. Infrastructure investment, changing climatic accessibility, new maritime technologies, resource exploitation, military deployments, commercial experimentation and shifts in great-power strategy can all reveal that the geopolitical value of a maritime space is changing. A passage that appears peripheral when measured only by today’s cargo volumes may occupy a central position in tomorrow’s maritime architecture.

Bering is particularly valuable as an analytical case because the geography already exists while the scale of future dependence remains uncertain. The correct question is therefore not whether Bering today equals Malacca. It clearly does not. The question is whether developments in Arctic navigation could progressively transform a geographically restricted passage between two major powers into a gateway upon which a larger system of maritime circulation begins to depend.

If that process occurs, institutions, infrastructure, maritime domain awareness, environmental safeguards and mechanisms for international cooperation will be easier to establish before dependence becomes acute than afterwards. Anticipation is therefore not prediction. It is preparation for a strategically credible possibility.

The Geography of Tomorrow

The international system cannot widen Hormuz. It cannot move Malacca. It cannot eliminate the geographical relationship connecting Bab el-Mandeb with Suez. And it cannot relocate Bering. What states can change is the political, institutional and strategic architecture constructed around these geographical realities.

For this reason, the geopolitics of maritime chokepoints must increasingly address two questions rather than one. The first remains indispensable: Which maritime passages concentrate the vulnerabilities of the international system today?

Where is tomorrow’s dependence beginning to concentrate?

If the Arctic becomes a more significant maritime space, Bering will increasingly reveal its deeper geographical character: the narrow Pacific entrance to an emerging oceanic system, situated between the United States and Russia and potentially serving the expanding commercial interests of China and other Asian maritime economies.

That configuration does not guarantee that the Bering Strait will become one of the defining chokepoints of the twenty-first century. But it makes the possibility strategically important enough to examine before the answer becomes obvious.

The established chokepoints tell us where globalisation has already become dependent upon geography.
Bering tells us where geography may be waiting for globalisation.

Research Note

This commentary develops themes examined in Artur Victoria’s research paper, Maritime Chokepoints and the Geopolitics of Global Vulnerability: Strategic Gateways, Systemic Risk and the Emerging Importance of the Bering Strait, Ocean Geopolitics Centre Research Paper 01/2026.

The complete Research Paper is available through Zenodo, ResearchGate and Academia.edu. The broader comparative study of the world’s principal maritime chokepoints is developed in the author’s recently published book under the Ocean Geopolitics Centre.

Artur Victoria
Ocean Geopolitics Centre
2026

The post Bering and the Geography of Tomorrow’s Vulnerability: From Maritime Chokepoints to the Concept of the Latent Chokepoint appeared first on Ocean Geopolitics Centre.

The oceans are entering a new era of strategic importance. For centuries they were primarily regarded as routes connecting nations through trade, exploration and naval power. Today, however, they have become far more than maritime highways. They are increasingly the central arena where geopolitics, technology, economics, security, environmental sustainability and international governance converge.

This profound transformation raises an important question. Can the complexity of the contemporary maritime domain still be adequately understood through existing academic disciplines alone?

International Relations explains interstate behaviour. Maritime Strategy analyses the use of sea power. International Maritime Law establishes the legal framework governing the oceans. Oceanography provides scientific knowledge of marine systems, while Economics and Environmental Science contribute essential perspectives on maritime development and sustainability.

Each discipline remains indispensable. Yet none, when considered independently, fully explains the increasingly interconnected strategic realities of the twenty-first century.

The Ocean Century

More than ninety per cent of global trade by volume continues to move by sea. The world’s digital communications depend on submarine fibre-optic cables crossing the oceans. Offshore energy production, maritime logistics, autonomous shipping, artificial intelligence, climate change, marine biodiversity and strategic competition increasingly interact within the same maritime environment.

The oceans are no longer simply geographical spaces between continents. They have become integrated strategic systems that influence international stability, economic resilience and technological development.

This transformation requires new ways of thinking.

Beyond Traditional Maritime Studies

The growing complexity of maritime affairs cannot be fully explained by examining political, legal, technological or environmental issues separately. Contemporary maritime challenges emerge precisely through the interaction of these different dimensions.

Ocean Geopolitics proposes an integrated analytical framework capable of connecting these perspectives into a coherent understanding of the maritime domain.

Rather than replacing existing disciplines, Ocean Geopolitics brings together their contributions to explain how geography, power, governance, economics, technology, law, security and environmental processes collectively shape the international system.

Towards a New Scientific Discipline

This approach forms the basis of my latest publication:

OGC Working Paper No. 002

Why the Twenty-First Century Requires a New Science of Ocean Geopolitics: Towards the Recognition of Ocean Geopolitics as an Autonomous Multidisciplinary Discipline

The Working Paper argues that Ocean Geopolitics should be recognised as an emerging multidisciplinary scientific discipline. It develops its conceptual foundations, proposes its scientific architecture, identifies its principal research domains and examines its implications for universities, governments and international organisations.

Open Access Publication

The complete Working Paper is freely available through Zenodo.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21427684

I hope this contribution will encourage further discussion concerning the future of maritime studies and the growing strategic importance of the oceans in the twenty-first century.

Keywords: Ocean Geopolitics, Maritime Geopolitics, Ocean Governance, Maritime Security, Blue Economy, Ocean Intelligence, Strategic Studies, International Relations, Maritime Strategy.

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